Long Term Athletic Development (LTAD)

Sports scientists have reported that there are critical periods in the life of a young person in which the effects of training can be maximised. They have also concluded that it can take anything from eight to twelve years of training for a talented athlete to achieve elite status. This has led to the development of athletic models, which identify appropriate training aims at each stage of the athlete's physical development.

Athletic model indicators

Research has shown that that chronological age is not a good indicator on which to base athletic development models for athletes between the ages of 10 to 16 as within this age group there is a wide variation in the physical, cognitive and emotional development.

One practical solution is to use the onset of Peak Height Velocity (PHV), which is influenced by genetics and environmental factors (climate, cultural & social), as a reference point for the design of training programs.

PVH is the point in a child's development when they reach their maximum growth rate. The average age for reaching PVH is 12 for girls and 14 for boys.

Using simple measurements (standing height & sitting height) PHV can be monitored and appropriate training can be set to match the athlete's development.

Model for LTAD

Sports can be classified as early specialization (e.g. gymnastics) or late specialization (e.g. Track and Field, Team sports). Early specialization sports require a four phase model while a late specialization model requires six phases.

Late Specialization Model

Phase 1 - FUNdamentals

This phase is appropriate for boys aged 6 to 9 and girls aged 5 to 8. The main objective should be the overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities and fundamental movement skills. The key points of this phase are:

• Participation in as many sports as possible
• Speed, power and endurance are developed using FUN games
• Appropriate and correct running, jumping and throwing techniques are taught using the ABC's of athletics
• Introduction to the simple rules and ethics of sports
• Strength training with exercises which use the child’s own body weight; medicine ball and Swiss ball exercises
• Training programs, based on the school year, are structured and monitored but not periodised
• Develop the athlete's:
  • ABC's (Agility, Balance, Coordination and Speed)
  • RJT (Running, Jumping, Throwing)
  • KGBs (Kinesthetics, Gliding, Buoyancy, Striking with a body part)
  • CKs (Catching, Kicking, Striking with an implement)

The first ‘critical period of speed development’ will occur during this phase, age 6-8 for girls and 7-9 for boys respectively. Linear, lateral and multi-directional speed should be developed and the duration of the repetitions should be less than 5 seconds. Fun and games should be used for speed training and the volume of training should be lower.

Phase 2 - Learning to train

This phase is appropriate for boys aged 9 to 12 and girls aged 8 to 11. The main objective should be to learn all fundamental sports skills. The key points of this phase are:

• Further develop fundamental movement skills
• Learn general overall sports skills
• Continue to develop strength with medicine ball, Swiss ball and own body-weight exercises as well as hopping-bounding exercises
• Continue to develop endurance with games and relays
• Introduce basic flexibility exercises
• Continue to develop speed with specific activities during the warm-up, such as agility, quickness and change of direction
• Develop knowledge of warm up, cool down, stretching, hydration, nutrition, recovery, relaxation and focusing
• Training programs are structured and based on a single periodisation
• Competition is structured and a 70:30 training/practice to competition-ratio is recommended

Phase 3 - Training to train

This phase is appropriate for boys aged 12 to 16 and girls aged 11 to 15. The main objective should be the overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities (focus on aerobic conditioning) and fundamental movement skills. The key points of this phase are:

• Further develop speed and sport-specific skills
• Develop the aerobic base - after the onset of PHV
• Learn correct weight lifting techniques
• Develop knowledge of how and when to stretch, how to optimise nutrition and hydration, mental preparation, how and when to taper and peak
• Establish pre-competition, competition and post competition routines
• The strength training window for boys begins 12 to 18 months after PHV
• There are two windows of opportunity to strength training for girls
  • Window one is immediately after PHV
  • Window two begins with the onset of menarche (the first menstrual period)
• Special emphasis is also required for flexibility training due to the sudden growth of bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles
• A 60% training to 40% competition ratio (includes competition and competition-specific training) is recommended

Phase 4 - Training to compete

This phase is appropriate for boys aged 16 to 18 and girls aged 15 to 17. The main objective should be to optimise fitness preparation, sport/event specific skills and performance. The key points of this phase are:

• 50% of available time is devoted to the development of technical and tactical skills and fitness improvements
• 50% of available time is devoted to competition and competition-specific training
• Learn to perform these sport specific skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training
• Special emphasis is placed on optimum preparation by modeling training and competition
• Fitness programs, recovery programs, psychological preparation and technical development are now individually tailored to the athlete's needs
• Double and multiple periodisation is the optimal framework of preparation

Phase 5 - Training to win

This phase is appropriate for boys aged 18+ and girls aged 17+. The main objective should be to maximize fitness preparation and sport/event specific skills as well as performance. The key points of this phase are:

• All of the athlete’s physical, technical, tactical, mental, personal and lifestyle capacities are now fully established and the focus of training has shifted to the maximization of performance
• Athletes train to peak for major competitions
• Training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume with appropriate breaks to prevent over training
• Training to competition ratio in this phase is 25:75, with the competition percentage including competition-specific training activities

Phase 6 - Retirement & retainment

The main objective should be to retain athletes for coaching, officiating, sport administration etc.

LTAD Model

The diagrams below show the above Late Specialization LTAD Model phases for boys and girls.

UK Athletics Model

The following is an example of a five stage progression (UK Athletics model) for long term athlete development:

1. Fundamentals - where the emphasis is on fun, developing basic fitness and general movement skills - training years 1 to 3 and ideally a chronological age of 6 to 13.
2. Learning to Train - where the emphasis is to learn how to train and develop their general skills - training years 3 to 5 and ideally a chronological age of 10 to 15.
3. Training to Train - where the emphasis is event(s) specific training - training years 5 to 7 and ideally a chronological age of 13 to 17.
4. Training to Compete - where the emphasis is to correct weaknesses and develop athletic abilities - training years 7 to 9 and ideally a chronological age of 15 to 19.
5. Training to Win - where the emphasis is on enhancing performance - training years 10+ and ideally a chronological age of 18+.

Related Research Papers

• Balyi I,. Hamilton A. (2004) Long-Term Athlete Development: Trainability in Childhood and Adolescence. Windows of Opportunity. Optimal Trainability. Victoria: National Coaching Institute British Columbia & Advanced Training and Performance Ltd.
• Anderson, G.S., and Bernhardt, B.A. Coaching Children. Growth and Maturation Considerations. BC Coaches’ Perspective. Fall, 1998. Vol.2. Issue. 4. pp.14 - 16.
• Bar-Or, O. ed., The Child and Adolescent Athlete. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1996.
• Blimkie, C.J.R. and Bar-Or, O. “Trainability of Muscle Strength, Power and Endurance during Childhood”. In: Bar-Or, O. ed., The Child and Adolescent Athlete. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1996.
• Bloom, B. Developing Talent in Young People. New York: Ballantines, 1985.
• Building Pathways in Irish Sport. National Training and Coaching Centre, Ireland, 2003.
• Ericsson, K.A. and Charness, N. Expert performance. Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, August 1994, p. 725-747.
• Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T. and Tesch-Romer, C. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 1993, p. 363-406.
• Malina, R.M. and Bouchard, C. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, 1991.
• Ross, W.D. and Marfell-Jones, M.J. Chapter 6. Kinanthropometry. In MacDougall, D.J., Wenger, H.A. and Green, H.J. Physiological Testing of the High-Performance Athlete. 2nd Edition. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, pp.76-115.
• Rowland, T. Developmental Exercise Physiology. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, 1996.
• Rushall, B. The Growth of Physical Characteristics in Male and Female Children. In: Sports Coach, Australia. Vol. 20., No.64, Summer, 1998. pp. 25-27.
• Salmela, J.H., Young, B.W. and Kallio, J. Within-career transition of the athletecoach triad. In Wylleman, P. and Lavallee, D., (Eds.) Career transition in :. Morgantown, VA: Fit Publications, 1998.
• The Swimmer Pathway. Amateur Swimming Association. England. 2003.
• Viru, A. Adaptation in Sports Training. London, CRC Press. 1995.
• Viru, A., Loko, J., Volver, A., Laanetos, L., Karelson, K., and Viru, M. Age Periods of Accelerated Improvements of Muscle Strength, Power, speed and endurance in the Age Interval 6-18 Years. In Biology of Sport (Warsaw) Vol. 15(4), 1998, pp. 211-227.
• Vorontsov, A.R. Patterns of Growth for Some Characteristics of Physical Development: Functional and Motor Abilities in Boy Swimmers 11 – 18 Years. In: Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII, eds. Keskinen, K.L., Komi, P.V. and Hollander, A.P. Jyvaskyla, Gunners, 1999.

Developing Young Athletes How much could you benefit from Training & Coaching information that would guarantee your young athletes amazing results and a successful season? Select this link for more details

Associated Pages

The following Sports Coach pages should be read in conjunction with this page:

• Articles on Coaching young athletes
• Coaching Young Athletes
• Long Term Athletic Development (LTAD)

• Training Books
• Training Products

Associated Books

The following books provide more information related to this topic:

• Advanced Studies in Physical Education and Sport, P Beashel et al., ISBN 0 17 4482345
• Physical Education and the Study of Sport, B. Davis et al., ISBN 0 7234 31752
• Essentials of Exercise Physiology, W.D. McArdle et al., ISBN 0 683 30507 7
• Physical Education and Sport Studies, D. Roscoe et al., ISBN 1 901424 20 0
• The World of Sport Examined, P. Beashel et al., ISBN 0 17 438719 9
• Advanced PE for Edexcel, F. Galligan et al., ISBN 0 435 50643 9
• Examining Physical Education, K. Bizley, ISBN 0 435 50660 9
• Sport and PE, K Wesson et al., ISBN 0 340 683821
• PE for you, J. Honeybourne, ISBN 0 7487 3277 2