What the experts sayNigel Hetherington reviews the latest research material relating to coaching, exercise physiology and athletic development. Skill development in senior sports peopleThe first paper reviewed this month [1] examines skill development in senior sports people. We often hear about the importance of laying down a foundation of activity based around technique during the 'skill hungry years' around the age of 10-12. In contrast we often hear the phrase 'You can't teach an old dog new tricks' with reference to older players. The purpose of the study was to determine whether multidimensional perceptual-cognitive skills training, including situational awareness, anticipation, and decision making, improves on-court performance in older adults when compared with a physical training program, including stroke and footwork development. 27 senior tennis players were randomly assigned to one of three groups: perceptual-cognitive skills training, technique-footwork training, or no training. Results indicated that participants receiving perceptual-cognitive skills training had significantly faster response speeds, higher percentage of accurate responses, and higher percentage of performance decision making in post-test match situations. Findings provide clear evidence that perceptual-cognitive skills can be trained in aged individuals. The old dog just got a new trick!
Timing is everything as speed increasesIn a study [2] the fascicle (muscle bundle) length of the human medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscle was monitored to evaluate possible input from the short-latency stretch reflex (<55ms, SLR) during the stance phase of running and to examine its timing at various running speeds. Eight subjects ran at 2.0, 3.5, 5.0, and 6.5 m/s. During ground contact, the sudden MG fascicle stretch occurred during the early contact at all running speeds. This was followed by the fascicle shortening. The timing of fascicle stretch depended on running speed and type of foot contact. In slower speed conditions (2.0, 3.5, 5 m/s), the MG fascicle stretch and the corresponding SLR activities occurred during the middle of the braking phase. In fast-speed running (6.5 m/s), however, the MG fascicle stretch occurred later compared with the lower speed. The corresponding SLR activities occurred significantly later at the end of the braking phase. In addition to the clear demonstration of the different timings of SLR in MG during ground contact of running, the results imply that the role of the MG SLR during the stance phase of running can be different between fast- and slow-speed running conditions. These factors should be taken account of in planning appropriate running activities. Fatigue without tiredness?Imagine you could test muscular endurance without actually getting tired! Well a recent paper [3] highlights exactly how to do that - well nearly - using repetitive magnetic stimulation the muscle still fatigues but at least the subject does not have to run, cycle or row for 2 hours! A follow-up paper [4] specifically examined the effect of repetitive magnetic stimulation (rMS) of the intramuscular branches of the femoral nerve to establish if it be used to induce and quantify quadriceps endurance. The authors compared in vivo contractile properties of the quadriceps muscle with the fiber-type composition and oxidative enzyme capacity. Force generation and the surface electromyogram were measured throughout. Quadriceps twitch force, elicited by supramaximal magnetic stimulation of the femoral nerve, was measured before and after the protocol. Quadriceps muscle biopsies were analyzed for oxidative (citrate synthase, CS) and glycolytic (phosphofructokinase, PFK) enzyme activity and myosin heavy chain isoform protein expression. They concluded that quadriceps endurance assessment using rMS is feasible. Changing energy system balance by priming for best training outcomesA paper [5] further examined the understanding that a recent bout of high-intensity exercise can alter the balance of aerobic and anaerobic energy provision during subsequent exercise above the lactate threshold. The idea here is that through careful coupling of activities within a programme the energy systems can be 'primed' ready to increase the opportunity for targeting the development of one system over another. However, it remains uncertain whether such 'priming' influences the tolerable duration of subsequent exercise through changes in the parameters of aerobic function (e.g. lactic threshold, maximum oxygen uptake ( O2max)] and/or the hyperbolic power-duration relationship. The authors studied six men performing cycle ergometry to the limit of tolerance with a series of key measurements being recorded. All tests were subsequently repeated with a preceding 6-min supra-CP priming bout and an intervening 2-min recovery. The results suggest that, following supra-CP priming, there is either a reduced depleted energy resource or a residual fatigue-metabolite level that leads to the tolerable limit before this resource is fully depleted. Caffeine - in a stir again?In recent years Caffeine was removed form the WADA list of banned substances - recent papers might serve to bring this decision back under the spot light. Caffeine (CAF) increases blood pressure both at rest and during exercise. The effect of acute CAF ingestion combined with intense resistance training on cardiovascular function is however, unknown. A study [6] examined changes in cardiovascular function after completion of fatiguing bench-press and leg-press exercise after CAF or placebo ingestion. Twenty-two resistance-trained men ingested CAF (6 mg/kg) or placebo 1 h pre-exercise. They refrained from CAF intake and strenuous exercise 48 and 24 h pretrial, respectively. Heart rate and blood pressure were measured pre-exercise. After a standardized warm-up, 1-repetition-maximum (1-RM) on the barbell bench press and leg press was tested. When it had been determined, a load equivalent to 60% of 1-RM was placed on the bar, and the subject completed repetitions to failure. Measurements of heart rate and blood pressure were immediately completed, and mean arterial pressure was calculated. Results showed significant increases in heart rate (+ 10 beats/min) and systolic blood pressure (+ 8-10 mmHg) with acute CAF ingestion versus placebo. No change in diastolic blood pressure across time or treatment was shown. To prevent elevated blood pressure and potential enhanced risk of heart disease the authors concluded that CAF intake should be monitored in at-risk men who participate in resistance training. A study [7] determined the effects of Red Bull energy drink on Wingate cycle performance and muscle endurance. Healthy young adults (11 men, 4 women, average age 21 years) participated in a study in which they were randomized to supplement with Red Bull (2 mg/kg body mass of caffeine) or an isoenergetic, isovolumetric, non-caffeinated placebo, separated by 7d. Muscle endurance (bench press) was assessed by the maximum number of repetitions over 3 sets (separated by 1-min rest intervals) at an intensity corresponding to 70% of baseline 1-repetition maximum. Three 30-s Wingate cycling tests with 2 min recovery between tests were used to assess peak and average power output. Red Bull energy drink significantly increased total bench-press repetitions over 3 sets (Red Bull = 34 ± 9 vs. placebo = 32 ± 8) but had no effect on Wingate peak or average power (Red Bull = 701 ± 124 W vs. placebo = 700 ± 132 W, Red Bull = 479 ± 74 W vs. placebo = 471 ± 74 W, respectively). Red Bull energy drink significantly increased upper body muscle endurance but had no effect on anaerobic peak or average power during repeated Wingate cycling tests in young healthy adults. A further study [8] assessed the perceptions, knowledge, and experiences of caffeine use by athletes competing at the 2005 Ironman Triathlon World Championships. Questionnaires were distributed to 140 athletes (105 men and 35 women, average age 40 years) representing 16 countries during pre-race registration. A large proportion (73%) of these endurance athletes believed that caffeine is ergogenic to their endurance performance, and 84% believe it improves their concentration. The most commonly reported positive caffeine experiences related to in-competition use of cola drinks (65%) and caffeinated gels (24%). The athletes' ability to accurately quantify the caffeine content of common food items was limited. The most popular sources of caffeine information were self-experimentation (16%), fellow athletes (15%), magazines (13%), and journal articles (12%). Over half the athletes (53%) could not identify an amount of caffeine required to improve their triathlon performance. Mean suggested doses were 3.8 (±±3) mg/kg body weight. Few side effects associated with taking caffeine during exercise were reported. Careless talk costs games!A fascinating study [9] had three objectives: 1) to explore athletes' preferences for informational and emotional content within pre-game speeches according to types of sporting situations, 2) to explore coaches' and athletes' perceptions of preferred informational and emotional content within pre-game speeches, and 3) to explore potential gender differences. Participants were 208 collegiate varsity athletes (121 male, 87 female). Athletes and coaches completed measures assessing preferences for pre-game speech content and demographic variables. Results indicated that athletes preferred differing amounts of information and emotion according to the situation and athletes' and coaches' perceptions of needed emotion within pre-game speeches differed as well. Gender differences were also found; female athletes placed higher values on the amount of information than did their male counterparts. No gender differences were found on the amount of emotional content.
Knowledge may be power but experience with knowledge reignA research report [10] explored factors that may influence whether coaches adopt desired behaviours. The research was conducted with a census survey of Canadian coaches who had completed all or part of their National Coaching Certification Program Competition-Introduction coach education. The results indicate that several factors may influence desired coaching behaviour. The factors include competitive experience as an athlete, hours of coaching per week, and whether the coaches are coaching individual or team sports. The results provide empirical evidence that factors beyond coach education probably influence whether coaches actually engage in sound coaching practice. So, like we say, obtaining a coaching license through a formal education course is one thing, but. Pre-competition nerves are good if correctly focusedA study [11] explored relationships between pre-competition anxiety and in-competition coping in swimmers. Thirty nine male swimmers with international competitive experience participated in the study (average age 19 years and competitive experience 9 years). Participants completed a short measure of anxiety intensity and direction before the start of their event and a coping questionnaire after the completion of their event. Correlation analysis showed that intensity of cognitive anxiety had low to moderate negative correlations with approach coping strategies, and low to moderate positive relationships with avoidance coping strategies. Furthermore, somatic anxiety intensity had low to moderate positive relationships with avoidance strategies. Finally, analysis of variance revealed that swimmers perceiving their anxiety states as facilitative reported more approach and less avoidance coping strategies than swimmers perceiving their anxiety states as debilitative. In accordance with previous evidence from the sport anxiety literature the results suggest that facilitative perceptions of anxiety symptoms relate to more adaptive cognitive and behavioural outcomes. Coaches should therefore place emphasis on not only the regulation of anxiety intensity, but also the way swimmers perceive anxiety symptoms. -It's okay to feel nervous, now go out there and channel it' might be the advice to give!? Maintain to avoid strainA systematic research publication review [12] set out to identify randomised controlled trials and controlled intervention studies that evaluated the effectiveness of preventive injury strategies in adolescent sport and to draw conclusions on the strength of the evidence. The review concluded that injury prevention strategies that focus on preseason conditioning, functional training, education, balance and sport-specific skills, which should be continued throughout the sporting season, are effective. Those coaches who miss this key message in a 'periodised' approach to training should review their planning strategy with view to ensuring these key elements are retained with the training programme at all times if injury avoidance is to be maximised Probiotics may help shorten post-race GI symptoms in marathon runnersHeavy exercise can be associated with an increased risk of upper respiratory tract infections. Strenuous exercise also causes gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. In previous studies probiotics have reduced respiratory tract infections and GI symptoms in general populations including children, adults, and the elderly. These questions have not been studied in athletes before. A study [13] investigated the effect of probiotics on the number of healthy days, respiratory infections, and GI-symptom episodes in marathon runners in the summer. 141 marathon runners were recruited for an intervention study during which they received Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) or placebo for a 3-month training period. At the end of the training period the subjects took part in a marathon race, after which they were followed up for 2 wk. The mean number of healthy days was 79.0 in the LGG group and 73.4 in the placebo group. There were no differences in the number of respiratory infections or GI-symptom episodes. The duration of GI-symptom episodes in the LGG group was 2.9 vs. 4.3 d in the placebo group during the training period and 1.0 vs. 2.3 d, respectively, during the 2 wk after the marathon. Authors concluded that LGG had no effect on the incidence of respiratory infections or GI-symptom episodes in marathon runners, but it seemed to shorten the duration of GI-symptom episodes. References
About the AuthorNigel Hetherington is the National Performance Manager for Scottish Athletics. He is a UK Athletics (UKA) level 4 performance coach and senior coach tutor and assessor trainer. He is a chartered chemist with 26 years' experience in scientific research. Nigel is also an experienced athlete in sprint and endurance events. Article Reference
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